Learning Definition Psychology: Exploring Key Theories and Educational Applications

Learning is a concept we encounter daily, yet its definition within psychology offers profound insights into how we acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This article delves into the psychology of learning, exploring its definition, key theories, and practical implications for education. Understanding the “Learning Definition Psychology” is crucial for educators and anyone interested in optimizing the learning process.

Defining Learning from a Psychological Perspective

From a psychological standpoint, learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior, skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. A critical aspect of this definition is permanence. Fleeting changes do not qualify as learning. For instance, momentarily remembering a phone number only to forget it immediately afterward isn’t considered learning. Similarly, eating vegetables solely under duress does not constitute “learning” to enjoy them. The change must endure over time to be considered learned behavior.

It’s also important to note that learning encompasses more than just cognitive aspects. It can be physical, social, or emotional. While sneezing due to a cold isn’t learned behavior, acquiring skills like riding a bicycle or throwing a ball involves physical learning. Furthermore, developing preferences or dislikes for individuals, even unintentionally, is also a form of learning.

Initially, when my son Michael was a preschooler, I tried to demonstrate the concept of learning to my educational psychology students. I presented a classic conservation task, pouring water from a tall glass into a wide pie plate. Michael, like many young children, believed the amount of water changed based on the container shape, indicating he hadn’t yet grasped the concept of volume conservation. Despite my explanations, Michael consistently reverted to his initial perception, highlighting the complexities of demonstrating “learning” in action.

Each subsequent year, until he turned six, I repeated this demonstration with Michael for my students. He would participate willingly but consistently fail the water conservation task. He would briefly agree with my explanation but ultimately maintain his original view. It seemed he wasn’t learning this specific piece of conventional knowledge despite repeated exposure.

However, the year Michael turned six, a significant shift occurred. When I mentioned my annual classroom visit, he readily agreed and asked, “Are you going to ask me about the water in the drinking glass and pie plate again?” I confirmed, and he responded, “That’s good because I know that the amount stays the same even after you pour it. But do you want me to fake it this time? For your students’ sake?” This anecdote underscores the gradual and sometimes unexpected nature of learning, even in seemingly simple tasks.

Teachers’ Perspectives on Learning: A Classroom Focus

For educators, “learning” often takes on a specific meaning, primarily associated with events within schools and classrooms. While teachers acknowledge learning occurs outside these settings, their professional lens tends to focus on classroom-based learning. Even at a young age, Michael began to associate “learning,” as perceived by his educator father, with classroom activities under teacher supervision.

Teachers’ perspectives on learning often emphasize three core ideas:

1. Curriculum Content and Academic Achievement: Teachers often link learning to the intentional content taught in schools, encompassing both the formal curriculum and classroom routines. This perspective frequently equates learning with academic achievements, particularly in language and mathematics, and to a lesser degree in areas like music, physical coordination, or social skills. This emphasis stems from the goals of public education, which hold teachers accountable for specific content and skills development. It’s not due to a lack of awareness that students learn extensively outside of school, but rather the inherent responsibilities of educators.

2. Sequencing and Readiness: The distinction between teaching and learning brings forth the concept of educational readiness. Traditionally, readiness refers to a student’s preparedness to engage with and benefit from school activities and expectations. For instance, a kindergarten-ready child is expected to have basic social skills, manage personal needs, and possess foundational motor skills. At higher education levels, “readiness” is often termed “prerequisites,” signifying necessary prior knowledge for advanced courses. However, readiness also has a teacher-oriented dimension. Teachers must be “ready” to adapt their approach to meet the diverse needs and developmental stages of their students. This is particularly crucial in special education and when addressing student diversity.

3. Transfer of Learning: Focusing on classroom learning highlights the importance of transfer, the ability to apply learned knowledge or skills in novel situations beyond the learning context. Elementary education prioritizes reading and arithmetic skills precisely because they are intended for use both inside and outside the classroom. Teachers aim for skills to “transfer,” striving to make learning both enjoyable and practically useful. The ideal teaching scenario combines enjoyment with utility, a goal educators consistently pursue.

Viewing Learning as Dependent on Curriculum

Thinking of learning primarily within the context of curriculum and academics has a notable side effect: classroom social interactions and behaviors become a management focus for teachers. In a classroom setting with numerous students, “learning” is often viewed as requiring concentration to minimize distractions or benefiting from collaboration to leverage peer interaction. This perspective is largely dictated by the confined classroom space. However, outside of school, learning frequently happens incidentally, without conscious effort or external direction. For example, we learn about a friend’s personality organically, without deliberate intent. While teachers may appreciate and sometimes even encourage incidental learning in classrooms, their primary responsibility for curriculum goals often directs their efforts toward conscious and deliberate learning. In a classroom, it’s always pertinent to consider whether social interactions among classmates are facilitating or hindering individual student learning.

Focusing on classroom-based learning can also lead to the misconception that teaching equates to learning. While teachers strive to impart knowledge, they are acutely aware that teaching and learning are distinct processes. Assigning reading material on the Russian Revolution doesn’t automatically guarantee uniform learning among students. Learning outcomes vary significantly; some students may fully grasp the material, others may misunderstand or partially retain it, and some may engage minimally. Effective teaching acknowledges this diversity and employs strategies (as discussed in chapters on instructional planning and assessment) to address these varied learning outcomes, rather than assuming direct equivalence between teaching and student understanding or retention.

Viewing Learning as Dependent on Sequencing and Readiness

The distinction between teaching and learning naturally leads to the concept of educational readiness. Traditionally, this term emphasizes a student’s preparedness to handle the demands of schooling. Kindergarten readiness, for example, encompasses factors like health, social skills, self-care abilities, and basic fine motor skills.

Signs of readiness in the child or student	Signs of readiness to teach reading
– productive (speaking) vocabulary of 5,000- 8,000 words – child understands and uses complete sentences – child’s questions tend to be relevant to the task at hand – child’s correctly using most common grammatical constructions – child can match some letters to some sounds – child can string a few letters together to make a few simple words – child can tell and retell stories, poems, and songs	– teacher answers children’s questions when possible – teacher encourages child to find out more through other means in addition to asking teacher – teacher asks questions designed to elaborate or expand child’s thinking – teacher highlights letters and sounds in the classroom – teacher provides lots of paper and marking tools – teacher assists child with initial writing of letters – teacher encourages children to enact stories, poems, and songs
Source: Copple & Bredekamp, 2006.

At higher educational levels, the term “readiness” often transforms into “prerequisites.” Physics courses, for instance, necessitate prerequisites like advanced algebra or calculus. Teacher training programs mandate practice teaching prior to full-fledged teaching roles.

It’s important to recognize that traditional readiness focuses on student adaptation to school, sometimes overlooking the reciprocal responsibility of schools and teachers to adapt to students. However, a second, crucial meaning of readiness emerges: schools and teachers must also be ready for students. If five-year-olds require active play, kindergarten teachers must be “ready” to provide play-based learning environments. Failure to do so cannot be solely attributed to the children. This teacher-oriented readiness is equally relevant for older students, especially those with diverse needs. For example, teachers must adapt their methods to accommodate visually impaired students, rather than expecting them to adapt without support. This perspective of readiness is paramount in special education and is vital whenever student diversity is present.

Viewing Transfer as a Crucial Outcome of Learning

Another consequence of centering learning around classrooms is the heightened importance of transfer – the application of knowledge or skills beyond the initial learning environment. Literacy and numeracy are core elementary school curriculum goals because these skills are intended for use both inside and outside the classroom. Educators aim for skills to “transfer,” ideally making learning both enjoyable and useful. In the educational realm, combining enjoyment and utility represents a “gold standard” of teaching, a target educators strive for, even if consistently achieving it remains a challenge.

Major Theories and Models of Learning: Behaviorism and Constructivism

Several core ideas—curriculum, the distinction between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and transfer—shape how educators perceive learning. These concepts act as a filter through which psychological theories are evaluated for their educational relevance. Many theories from educational psychology resonate with educators’ priorities and offer valuable solutions to classroom challenges. Educational psychologists have developed various theories pertinent to classroom learning, describing typical classroom dynamics and providing guidance for enhancing learning. These theories can be broadly categorized based on their focus: changes in behavior or changes in thinking. While this distinction is somewhat simplified, it provides a useful starting point. Two primary perspectives emerge: behaviorism, which views learning as changes in observable behavior, and constructivism, which understands learning as changes in thinking. Constructivism can be further divided into psychological constructivism (individual experience-driven thinking changes) and social constructivism (thinking changes influenced by social interactions). The following sections explore key concepts from each perspective, highlighting their relevance and practical applications in classrooms, offering insights into how to enhance student learning effectively.

Behaviorism: Changes in Observable Actions

Behaviorism is a learning perspective that emphasizes changes in individuals’ observable behaviors – what people demonstrably say or do. This perspective is often implicitly used in everyday life. For example, when learning to drive, the initial focus is on the physical act of driving itself, not on the theoretical understanding of driving. Similarly, when learning to cook, the immediate concern is producing edible food, not necessarily explaining culinary techniques. New teachers often prioritize classroom management and day-to-day survival over deep pedagogical reflection in their initial teaching experiences.

Focusing on behavior, rather than solely on “thoughts,” can be appropriate in certain situations, particularly in the initial stages of learning or skill acquisition. However, this focus shouldn’t be exclusive. Reflection and cognitive understanding become increasingly important for deeper learning and skill refinement. In teaching, attending to both observable behaviors and internal cognitive changes is crucial for holistic student development.

In classrooms, behaviorism is particularly useful for analyzing the relationships between specific student actions and their immediate antecedents and consequences. It is less suited for understanding complex cognitive changes, which are better addressed by cognitive theories like constructivism. This isn’t a limitation of behaviorism but rather its specific strength: highlighting observable action-antecedent-consequence relationships. Behaviorists use specific terminology to describe these relationships and primarily rely on two core models of behavioral learning: respondent (classical) conditioning and operant conditioning.

Respondent Conditioning: Learning Through Associations

Respondent conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, centers on involuntary responses to specific stimuli. For instance, flinching at the sight of a needle or smiling at a happy baby are involuntary reactions. Humans and animals possess a range of such automatic responses. A sudden loud noise typically triggers a startle response, characterized by physical reactions like jumping, increased heart rate, and looking for the sound source.

These involuntary stimulus-response patterns were systematically investigated by Ivan Pavlov in the early 20th century. Pavlov’s famous experiments involved dogs and their natural salivation response to food. He measured salivation in dogs when they were fed. However, he observed that dogs began to salivate before receiving food, sometimes even at the mere sight of Pavlov entering the room. The initially neutral stimulus of Pavlov’s presence became associated with the unconditioned stimulus of food, leading to a conditioned salivation response.

This change in the dogs’ involuntary response, particularly its increasing independence from the food itself, became Pavlov’s research focus. The process was termed respondent conditioning because it describes changes in responses to stimuli.

Respondent conditioning involves several key components:

• Unconditioned Response (UR): An involuntary, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus. (e.g., Ginger the dog salivating at the taste of food).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response. (e.g., the taste of dog food).
• Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that initially elicits no specific response. (e.g., the sound of opening a dog food bag before conditioning).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response. (e.g., the sound of opening any large bag after conditioning).
• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a conditioned stimulus. (e.g., Ginger salivating at the sound of any large bag opening).

Exhibit 1: Classical conditioning of Ginger, the dog. Before conditioning, Ginger salivates only to the taste of food and the bell has no effect. After conditioning, she salivates even when the bell is presented by itself.

Respondent Conditioning and Students: Shaping Attitudes

While respondent conditioning might seem primarily applicable to animals, it significantly impacts classroom learning, particularly in shaping students’ attitudes and feelings. Although teaching focuses on conscious thought and verbal communication, fostering positive attitudes like a love for learning and self-confidence is equally important. Respondent conditioning provides a framework for understanding how these attitudinal changes occur.

Consider a child who naturally responds positively to warm, friendly individuals but is initially cautious in new situations. If this child’s teacher embodies warmth and friendliness, the teacher’s smile (unconditioned stimulus) can elicit a positive response (unconditioned response) in the child. However, if this interaction occurs repeatedly within the classroom (initially a neutral stimulus), respondent conditioning takes place. The classroom environment becomes associated with the positive unconditioned stimulus (teacher’s smile) and the child’s positive response. Eventually, the classroom itself can become a conditioned stimulus, evoking positive feelings and behaviors (conditioned response) even without the teacher’s immediate presence. This process can lead to a child “learning” to enjoy being in the classroom.

Before Conditioning:

(UCS) Seeing Teacher Smile → Student Smiles (UR) (UCS) Seeing Classroom → No response (UR)

During Conditioning:

Seeing Teaching Smile + Seeing Classroom → Student Smiles

After Conditioning:

(CS) Seeing Classroom → Student Smiles (CR)

Exhibit 2: Respondent conditioning of student to classroom. Before conditioning, the student smiles only when he sees the teacher smile, and the sight of the classroom has no effect. After conditioning, the student smiles at the sight of the classroom even without the teacher present.

Conversely, negative respondent conditioning can also occur. Imagine a child with a less approachable teacher who frequently frowns or scowls (Mr. Horrible). Mr. Horrible’s frown (unconditioned stimulus) might elicit a negative response in the child, such as cringing or fear (unconditioned response). If these negative interactions predominantly occur within the classroom, the classroom itself can become a negative conditioned stimulus. The child may then experience apprehension simply upon entering the classroom, even without Mr. Horrible’s immediate presence.

Before Conditioning:

( UCS) Mr Horrible Frowns → Student Cringes (UCR)

Mr Horrible’s Classroom → No response

During Conditioning:

Mr Horrible Frowns + Sight of Classroom → Student Cringes

After Conditioning:

( CS) Seeing Classroom → Student Cringes ( CR)

Exhibit 3: Respondent conditioning of student to classroom. Before conditioning, the student cringes only when he sees Mr Horrible smile, and the sight of the classroom has no effect. After conditioning, the student cringes at the sight of the classroom even without Mr Horrible present.

These examples illustrate how respondent conditioning can profoundly influence students’ attitudes toward school and their motivation to learn. Positive conditioning fosters intrinsic motivation, an internal drive to engage and learn. Negative conditioning can create aversion and hinder motivation. Respondent conditioning significantly impacts students’ intrinsic motivation, either positively or negatively.

Three Key Concepts in Respondent Conditioning: Extinction, Generalization, and Discrimination

1. Extinction: In respondent conditioning, extinction refers to the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Imagine a child who has positively associated the classroom with a smiling teacher. If the teacher is replaced by a less expressive substitute teacher (Ms. Neutral), the conditioned positive response to the classroom may gradually extinguish as the association between the classroom and the positive stimulus (original teacher’s smile) is no longer reinforced. Extinction is a gradual process, not an immediate disappearance of the learned response. Negative conditioned responses can also extinguish over time if the negative unconditioned stimulus is removed.

2. Generalization: Generalization is the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to also elicit the conditioned response. If a dog is conditioned to salivate to a specific bell sound, it might also salivate to similar-sounding bells. In the classroom context, a child conditioned to enjoy their classroom might generalize this positive association to other classrooms or even school in general. This generalization can be beneficial, fostering a broader positive attitude towards learning environments. Conversely, negative associations can also generalize, leading to a generalized dislike or fear extending beyond the specific negative context.

3. Discrimination: Discrimination learning is the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond selectively only to the original conditioned stimulus. It’s the opposite of generalization. If a child initially generalizes their positive classroom association to all classrooms, but then experiences less positive environments in other classrooms, they may learn to discriminate. The positive conditioned response becomes specific to the original classroom and diminishes in other settings. Discrimination can be both beneficial and detrimental. It can prevent negative generalizations, confining negative responses to specific contexts, but it can also limit positive generalizations, preventing the development of broader positive attitudes. In the classroom example, a child might discriminate and only exhibit positive feelings in the classroom of the smiling teacher, preventing a generalized dislike of school but also limiting a generalized positive view.

Operant Conditioning: Learning from Consequences

Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences influence behavior. It’s based on the principle that behaviors followed by positive consequences (reinforcements) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative consequences (punishments) are less likely to be repeated. If a teacher praises a student for contributing insightful comments, that student is more likely to participate in future discussions. If classmates laugh at a student’s joke, the student is more likely to tell jokes again.

B.F. Skinner, a pioneer in operant conditioning, conducted extensive research using animals, particularly rats in controlled environments known as “Skinner boxes.” In a Skinner box, a rat might accidentally press a lever and receive a food pellet. This positive consequence (food) reinforces the lever-pressing behavior, making the rat more likely to press the lever again. Over time, the rat learns to associate lever-pressing with food and will press the lever intentionally to obtain food.

Skinner termed the food pellet a reinforcement and the lever-pressing behavior an operant because it “operated” on the rat’s environment to produce a consequence.

Operant→ Reinforcement Press lever → Food pellet	Operant conditioning chamber

Exhibit 4: Operant conditioning with a laboratory rat

Skinner and other behaviorists explored various types of reinforcers, operants, and schedules of reinforcement (patterns of reinforcement delivery), as well as cues or signals indicating when reinforcement was available. These factors significantly impact the effectiveness and durability of operant conditioning. Immediate reinforcement is generally more effective than delayed reinforcement, and intermittent reinforcement (reinforcement delivered only some of the time) leads to slower initial learning but greater resistance to extinction.

Operant Conditioning and Student Learning: Shaping Behaviors

Operant conditioning is highly relevant to human learning, particularly in classrooms. Countless classroom examples demonstrate how consequences shape student behavior. While not encompassing all forms of learning, operant conditioning provides a powerful framework for understanding and influencing student actions.

Here are some classroom examples of operant conditioning:

• A seventh-grade student makes a funny face at a classmate (operant), and classmates giggle (reinforcement), increasing the likelihood of the student making funny faces again.
• A kindergarten student raises their hand to answer a question (operant) and is called on by the teacher (reinforcement), encouraging hand-raising in the future.
• Another kindergarten student blurts out an answer (operant), is initially ignored by the teacher, but gains classmates’ attention (reinforcement), potentially reinforcing blurting out behavior despite teacher disapproval.
• A track team member runs a mile (operant) and observes improved speed and time (reinforcement), motivating continued effort in training.
• A restless student sits still for five minutes on an assignment (operant) and receives praise from a teaching assistant (reinforcement), encouraging focused work.
• A sixth-grader borrows a library book (operant) and receives a gold star on a classroom chart (reinforcement), promoting reading behavior.

These examples highlight several key points about operant conditioning in classrooms:

1. Prevalence: Operant conditioning is pervasive in classrooms, likely more so than respondent conditioning. Education inherently involves establishing contingencies between student actions and consequences, such as grades, praise, or reprimands.

2. Universality: Operant conditioning operates across all grade levels, subjects, and teaching styles. It’s a fundamental aspect of how learning environments function.

3. Multiple Reinforcers: Reinforcements are not solely controlled by teachers. They can originate from the activity itself (intrinsic reinforcement), classmates, or other sources.

4. Simultaneous Conditioning: Multiple instances of operant conditioning often occur concurrently, shaping a complex web of behavioral influences in the classroom.

Operant conditioning, like respondent conditioning, influences motivation. It can foster intrinsic motivation when the activity itself becomes reinforcing. Reading for pleasure is intrinsically motivated. However, operant conditioning more often involves a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation stems from external rewards or consequences, not inherent to the activity itself. In the examples above, while students might experience some intrinsic satisfaction from the activities (making faces, running, contributing to discussions), extrinsic reinforcements like giggles, praise, or gold stars also play a role. Extrinsic reinforcement is often more readily observable, but intrinsic motivation is equally important, though sometimes less visible. While concerns exist that extrinsic rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation, research suggests a more complex interplay. Extrinsic rewards can influence, but don’t necessarily eliminate, intrinsic motivation.

Comparing Operant and Respondent Conditioning: Key Concepts

Operant and respondent conditioning share some conceptual similarities, but their focus and mechanisms differ. Key concepts like extinction, generalization, and discrimination have slightly different meanings in each model.

Term	As defined in respondent conditioning	As defined in operant conditioning
Extinction	Disappearance of an association between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response	Disappearance of the operant behavior due to lack of reinforcement
Generalization	Ability of stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response	Tendency of behaviors similar to operant to be conditioned along with the original operant
Discrimination	Learning not to respond to stimuli that are similar to the originally conditioned stimulus	Learning not to emit behaviors that are similar to the originally conditioned operant
Schedule of Reinforcement	The pattern or frequency by which a CS is paired with the UCS during learning	The pattern or frequency by which a reinforcement is a consequence of an operant during learning
Cue	Not applicable	Stimulus prior to the operant that signals the availability or not of reinforcement

• Extinction: In operant conditioning, extinction is the decrease or disappearance of an operant behavior when reinforcement is withheld. If a student stops receiving praise for reading library books, their book-reading behavior may extinguish. In respondent conditioning, extinction is the weakening of the conditioned response due to the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

• Generalization: In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when behaviors similar to the original operant are also reinforced. If receiving gold stars reinforces library book reading, a student might generalize this to reading newspapers, even without direct reinforcement for newspaper reading. In respondent conditioning, generalization involves similar stimuli eliciting the conditioned response.

• Discrimination: In operant conditioning, discrimination is learning to perform the operant behavior only in specific situations where reinforcement is available and not in others. A student praised for discussion contributions must learn to discriminate when contributions are appropriate and when they are not. In respondent conditioning, discrimination involves differentiating between similar stimuli and responding only to the original conditioned stimulus.

• Schedule of Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, the schedule of reinforcement refers to the pattern and frequency of reinforcement delivery following the operant behavior. Reinforcement can be continuous (every time) or intermittent (sometimes). Intermittent reinforcement leads to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction. In respondent conditioning, the schedule refers to the pairing pattern of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

• Cue: Cues are relevant primarily to operant conditioning. A cue is a stimulus that precedes the operant behavior and signals the availability of reinforcement. For example, a teacher calling on a student serves as a cue that speaking at that moment might be reinforced with praise. Cues help individuals learn when certain behaviors are appropriate and likely to be reinforced.

Schedules of reinforcement have been extensively studied, revealing that partial or intermittent reinforcement schedules, while leading to slower initial learning, also result in greater resistance to extinction. This is relevant for teachers because classroom reinforcement is often intermittent due to practical constraints. While this means desired behaviors may take longer to establish, they are also more likely to persist even with occasional lapses in reinforcement. Conversely, undesirable behaviors, if learned through intermittent reinforcement, can also be more challenging to extinguish.

Constructivism: Changes in Thinking and Understanding

While behaviorist models offer valuable insights into influencing student actions, educators are equally concerned with students’ cognitive development – what students are thinking and how to foster deeper understanding. Constructivism offers a perspective focused on how students actively construct knowledge from their experiences. Constructivist models differ in the degree to which they emphasize individual versus social construction of knowledge, leading to distinctions between psychological constructivism and social constructivism.

Psychological Constructivism: The Independent Learner

Psychological constructivism emphasizes that individuals learn by internally organizing and reorganizing new information and experiences. This organization involves connecting new experiences to pre-existing meaningful knowledge. This perspective aligns with the educational philosophy of John Dewey, who advocated for aligning curriculum with students’ prior knowledge and interests, and connecting learning to real-world applications beyond school.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory is a prominent example of psychological constructivism. Piaget described learning as an interplay between assimilation and accommodation.

• Assimilation: Interpreting new information or experiences based on existing knowledge and understanding. A child familiar with “birds” might initially assimilate any flying object, like butterflies, into their “bird” schema. Assimilation is similar to generalization or transfer, but it applies to mental representations rather than just behaviors.

• Accommodation: Modifying existing concepts and knowledge structures to incorporate new information or experiences. The child who initially assimilates butterflies as birds will eventually accommodate their “bird” schema to differentiate between birds and butterflies, refining their understanding.

Assimilation and accommodation work together to create cognitive equilibrium, a balance between utilizing prior knowledge and adapting to new information. Cognitive equilibrium is characterized by an expanding repertoire of mental representations called schemata. A schema is not just a concept but a comprehensive mental framework encompassing vocabulary, actions, and experiences related to that concept. A child’s “bird” schema includes vocabulary, experiences with birds, images, and related conversations. Through assimilation and accommodation, schemata evolve, leading to deeper learning and understanding.

Learning According to Piaget:

Assimilation + Accommodation → Equilibrium → Schemata

Exhibit 5: Constructivist models of learning

Piaget’s model of learning is primarily “individualistic,” focusing on internal cognitive processes with less emphasis on social interactions. While Piaget acknowledged the role of social transmission (guidance from others), his primary focus was on independent cognitive development. Therefore, Piaget’s theory is often viewed more as a theory of development than solely of learning, emphasizing long-term cognitive change. Educators often find Piaget’s ideas particularly useful for understanding student readiness for learning at different developmental stages.

Social Constructivism: Learning with Guidance

In contrast to Piaget’s individualistic focus, social constructivism emphasizes the crucial role of social interaction and guidance from more knowledgeable individuals in the learning process. Jerome Bruner, a proponent of social constructivism, believed that students can learn more effectively with appropriate instructional scaffolding, temporary support structures that enable learners to achieve higher levels of understanding and skill. Bruner famously asserted that “any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development” (Bruner, 1960, p. 33), emphasizing the power of effective scaffolding.

Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is another cornerstone of social constructivism. Vygotsky highlighted the influence of social interactions with more knowledgeable others on a learner’s cognitive development. He introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the gap between what a learner can achieve independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more expert individual. Learning within the ZPD is viewed as assisted performance. Initially, knowledge and skills reside primarily with the expert. Through effective scaffolding and guided practice, the expert helps the novice learner develop and appropriate (internalize) these skills and knowledge. The expert acts like a coach, providing guidance and support but not performing the task for the learner.

Learning According to Vygotsky:

Novice → Zone of Proximal Development ← Expert (ZPD)

Exhibit 5: Constructivist models of learning

Social constructivism emphasizes that learning is not merely passive reception of information but active construction facilitated by social interaction and expert guidance. The expert’s role is crucial in creating supportive learning environments and providing appropriate scaffolding within the learner’s ZPD.

In both psychological and social constructivism, learners are not passively “taught” but actively construct their own understanding. Social constructivism, however, explicitly emphasizes the expert’s responsibility in facilitating this construction process. Experts (teachers) must possess not only content knowledge but also pedagogical skills to break down complex information, sequence learning activities, provide effective practice, and connect learning to students’ existing knowledge. Effective teaching, according to social constructivism, is about creating and managing effective zones of proximal development for learners.

Implications of Constructivism for Teaching: Practical Strategies

Constructivist learning theories offer practical strategies for teachers to enhance student learning. Two key strategies are:

1. Organizing Content Systematically: Structuring content logically and systematically helps teachers design more effective learning activities that target students’ ZPDs. Bloom’s Taxonomy is a widely used framework for categorizing educational objectives, ranging from basic knowledge recall to complex evaluation. Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a hierarchy of cognitive skills:

Category or type of thinking	Definition	Example (with apologies to Goldilocks and her bear friends!)
Knowledge	Remembering or recalling facts, information, or procedures	List three things Goldilocks did in the three bears’ house.
Comprehension	Understanding facts, interpreting information	Explain why Goldilocks liked the little bear’s chair the best.
Application	Using concepts in new situations, solving particular problems	Predict some of the things that Goldilocks might have used if she had entered your house.
Analysis	Distinguish parts of information, a concept, or a procedure	Select the part of the story where Goldilocks seemed most comfortable.
Synthesis	Combining elements or parts into a new object, idea, or procedure	Tell how the story would have been different if it had been about three fishes.
Evaluation	Assessing and judging the value or ideas, objects, or materials in a particular situation	Decide whether Goldilocks was a bad girl, and justify your position.

Bloom’s Taxonomy helps teachers align learning activities with appropriate cognitive levels, ensuring activities are challenging yet within students’ ZPDs. For example, a student struggling with basic biology terminology (knowledge and comprehension levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy) needs foundational vocabulary support before engaging in complex comparative analysis (analysis level). Teachers, as experts, use frameworks like Bloom’s Taxonomy to design ZPD-appropriate activities that facilitate student learning.

2. Promoting Metacognition: As students mature, they develop the capacity to reflect on their own learning processes. Teachers can foster metacognition, students’ ability to think about and regulate their own thinking and learning. Encouraging metacognition empowers students to become more self-directed learners, gradually reducing their reliance on external expert guidance. Metacognition involves self-assessment and self-regulation of learning. For instance, a biology student can be guided to reflect on their preferred learning strategies for mastering complex biological concepts. Developing metacognitive skills is a crucial goal of social constructivist education, fostering independent, lifelong learning.

Social constructivism, with its emphasis on expert guidance and social interaction, offers a comprehensive framework for understanding classroom learning. While psychological constructivism may seem to de-emphasize the teacher’s role, it provides valuable insights into developmental readiness and learning sequences. Both perspectives contribute to a richer understanding of the “learning definition psychology” and offer complementary strategies for effective teaching.

Chapter Summary: Key Perspectives on Learning Definition Psychology

The term “learning,” as used in education, is closely tied to curriculum, teaching, sequencing, readiness, and transfer. Behaviorist and constructivist perspectives offer valuable frameworks for understanding learning within this context. Behaviorism, encompassing respondent and operant conditioning, explains how associations and consequences shape observable behaviors. Respondent conditioning highlights how neutral stimuli can acquire the power to elicit responses through association. Operant conditioning emphasizes how consequences and cues influence the frequency of behaviors.

Constructivism, in its psychological and social forms, focuses on how individuals actively construct knowledge through experience. Psychological constructivism emphasizes individual cognitive processes of assimilation and accommodation. Social constructivism highlights the role of social interaction and expert guidance in facilitating knowledge construction within the zone of proximal development. Social constructivism underscores the importance of instructional planning, potentially guided by frameworks like Bloom’s Taxonomy, and the fostering of metacognition to promote self-directed learning.

Understanding the “learning definition psychology” through these diverse theoretical lenses provides educators with a comprehensive toolkit for creating effective learning environments and optimizing student outcomes.

On the Internet

http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba – Website for the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, offering examples of behaviorist learning principles in practice (older articles are free).

www.piaget.org – Website for the Jean Piaget Society, focusing on constructivist learning and development research (free publications available).

Key Terms

Appropriate (verb)	Behaviorism	Bloom’s taxonomy	Classical conditioning	Constructivism	Psychological constructivism	John Dewey	Jean Piaget	Assimilation	Accommodation	Equilibrium	Schema	Social constructivism	Jerome Bruner	Instructional scaffolding	Lev Vygotsky	Zone of proximal development	Discrimination	Extinction
Extrinsic motivation	Generalization	Learning	Intrinsic motivation	Metacognition	Operant conditioning	Cue	Operant	Reinforcement	Schedule of reinforcement	Ivan Pavlov	Readiness	Respondent conditioning	Conditioned response	Conditioned stimulus	Unconditioned response	Unconditioned stimulus	B. F. Skinner	Transfer

References

Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2005). Applied behavior analysis for teachers, 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Copple, C. & Bredekamp, S. (2006). Basics of developmentally appropriate practice. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dewey, J. (1938/1998). How we think. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ferster, C., Skinner, B. F., Cheney, C., Morse, W., & Dews, D. Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Copley Publishing Group.

Fosnot, C. (Ed.). (2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice, 2nd edition. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2006). The development and education of the mind. New York: Routledge.

Goldman, J. (2006). Web-based designed activities for young people in health education: A constructivist approach. Health Education Journal 65(1), 14-27.

Gruber, H. & Voneche, J. (Eds.). (1995). The essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books. Israel, S. (Ed.). (2005). Metacognition in literacy learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Lavond, D. & Steinmetz, J. (2003). Handbook of classical conditioning. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishing.

Mazur, J. (2005). Learning and behavior, 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Onslow, M., Menzies, R., & Packman, A. (2001). An operant intervention for early stuttering. Behavior modification 25(1), 116-139.

Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London, UK: Oxford University Press. Piaget, J. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London, UK: Routledge.

Rockmore, T. (2005). On constructivist epistemology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Salkind, N. (2004). An introduction to theories of human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden Two. New York: Macmillan.

Skinner, B. F. (1988). The selection of behavior: The operant behaviorism of B. F. Skinner. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1991). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.