The shift to online learning, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has presented numerous challenges to the education sector. One significant issue that has emerged is student loneliness, stemming from reduced interpersonal interaction inherent in digital learning environments. This article delves into the critical issue of loneliness in online learning, drawing upon research into the relationship between loneliness, academic achievement, and student engagement. Furthermore, we explore the moderating role of individual beliefs, specifically focusing on the concept of God’s Locus of Control (GLC), and propose strategies to mitigate loneliness and foster connection in online educational settings.
Students feeling isolated and disconnected during online class
The Rising Tide of Loneliness in Online Education
The abrupt transition from traditional classrooms to online platforms in early 2020, necessitated by the global pandemic, forced educational institutions worldwide to adapt rapidly. While technology offered a solution to continue education remotely, it also introduced unforeseen complexities. Beyond logistical challenges like internet access and curriculum adjustments, a growing concern emerged: a ‘crisis of connection’ and a ‘loneliness epidemic’ associated with online learning. The prolonged absence of face-to-face interactions raised serious questions about the psychological well-being and long-term development of students.
While information technology excels at facilitating communication across distances, it paradoxically can contribute to a sense of isolation. The nature of online interactions can foster an “illusion of friendship without friendship,” as noted by Wood and Turkle (2012), potentially exacerbating feelings of loneliness among students. Online channels often lack the depth and richness of in-person connections, hindering the formation of meaningful relational bonds. Research consistently highlights loneliness as a significant predictor of negative mental health outcomes, reduced student engagement, poorer academic performance, diminished sense of community, and increased dropout intentions. Therefore, understanding and addressing the impact of loneliness on the online learning experience is paramount.
Understanding the Link Between Loneliness, Engagement, and Academic Success
Existing research has established correlations between loneliness, student engagement, and academic achievement. However, there remains a need for deeper exploration into the mechanisms underlying these relationships and effective interventions. Firstly, while studies have linked loneliness to various detrimental student learning behaviors, a comprehensive model explaining the interplay between loneliness, student engagement, and academic achievement has been lacking. This article emphasizes the mediating role of student engagement in the relationship between loneliness and academic success, positioning engagement as a key psychological factor.
Secondly, to gain a richer understanding of loneliness’s effects, we incorporate the concept of God’s Locus of Control (GLC). GLC, reflecting an individual’s belief in God’s influence over their life, adds a layer of complexity to the study of locus of control in the context of online learning. The role of GLC in influencing individual behavior remains a subject of debate. Some researchers associate GLC with an external locus of control, suggesting it may weaken personal agency and motivation. Conversely, others link GLC to an internal locus, associating it with self-efficacy and resilience. This article contributes to understanding the nuanced role of GLC, particularly within the context of online learning during disruptive periods like the COVID-19 pandemic, and among students in non-Western cultural contexts.
Thirdly, this discussion expands the geographical scope of research on GLC, which has predominantly focused on Western populations. By examining GLC in the context of Asian students, specifically in Indonesia, this article broadens the empirical evidence base and addresses the limited research in the education sector, where GLC studies have been less prevalent compared to health-related fields. This exploration is particularly relevant in understanding the influence of GLC within online learning environments during times of crisis.
Theoretical Framework: ETL and PNL Models
This analysis is grounded in two established theoretical frameworks: the Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness (ETL) and the Positive and Negative Learning (PNL) model. The ETL posits that loneliness, arising from perceived social isolation, has profound effects on social behaviors. While loneliness can motivate individuals to seek social connection to alleviate feelings of isolation, it can also, according to Cacioppo and Cacioppo (2018), diminish the motivation for social interaction if past attempts at connection have been unsuccessful. This highlights the critical role of prior social experiences in shaping responses to loneliness. The ETL provides a robust framework for understanding the impact of pandemic-related social restrictions on student well-being and loneliness.
Building upon the ETL, the PNL model, adapted from the Job-Demands Resources model, offers insights into the factors influencing learning engagement. The PNL model identifies study-related demands and learning/personal resources as key determinants of student engagement. Learning resources encompass elements like feedback, social support, technological assistance, and self-efficacy. The model also recognizes the impact of learning engagement on critical thinking and, importantly, academic achievement. Integrating the PNL model with the ETL and GLC allows for a comprehensive understanding of how loneliness, personal beliefs, and learning resources interact to affect student engagement and academic outcomes in online learning environments.
Loneliness and its Impact on Student Engagement
Loneliness, in essence, represents a gap between desired and actual social connections. It’s a negative emotional state driven by perceived deficits in social relationships, deeply intertwined with an individual’s social resources and limitations. In the context of education, loneliness is strongly linked to a lack of social presence and interaction, particularly salient in online learning settings. Addressing loneliness is crucial due to its detrimental effects on the overall student learning experience.
Student engagement in online learning environments is inherently more complex than in traditional settings. The absence of immediate verbal and non-verbal cues makes it challenging for educators to gauge student engagement and respond effectively. However, student engagement can be understood as a positive and persistent emotional and cognitive state during learning, as defined by Schaufeli et al. (2002). Engagement comprises emotional, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions. The emotional component reflects students’ attitudes towards learning, influenced by their perceptions of relationships with peers, instructors, and the institution. The cognitive dimension relates to the perceived relevance of academic work and learning methods that encourage creativity and self-regulated learning. The behavioral component encompasses observable actions such as attendance, participation, task completion, and persistence.
Drawing on the PNL model, loneliness is identified as a negative personal resource that negatively impacts emotions and overall well-being. Given that learning engagement is multi-faceted, encompassing emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects, the relationship between loneliness and engagement becomes significant. Empirical evidence confirms the link between loneliness and reduced student engagement and academic performance. Loneliness can lead to student withdrawal and decreased participation. Conversely, studies have shown that burnout can contribute to loneliness, further decreasing student engagement. Synthesizing these findings, we propose the hypotheses:
H1: Loneliness has a negative correlation with student engagement.
H2: Loneliness has a negative correlation with academic achievement.
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated concerns about student engagement in online classes, with reports of decreased engagement and increased failure and dropout rates. Maintaining high levels of student engagement is crucial for academic success. Research consistently demonstrates the vital role of learning engagement as a predictor of student academic achievement. Based on this established link, we hypothesize:
H3: Student engagement is positively correlated with academic achievement.
Furthermore, we propose that student engagement mediates the relationship between loneliness and academic achievement. Loneliness is expected to reduce engagement, and in turn, lower engagement negatively impacts academic performance. Therefore, student engagement acts as a crucial psychological mechanism through which loneliness affects academic outcomes. This leads to our mediation hypothesis:
H4: Student engagement mediates the negative relationship between loneliness and academic achievement.
The Moderating Influence of God Locus of Control
The concept of God Locus of Control (GLC) is rooted in the broader framework of Locus of Control (LoC), which differentiates between individuals’ beliefs in internal versus external control over life outcomes. LoC, introduced by Rotter (1966), originates from social learning theory and posits that individuals exist on a continuum between internal and external control orientations. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe their actions significantly influence outcomes, while those with an external locus believe external forces play a dominant role.
The positioning of GLC within this framework is debated. One perspective aligns GLC with an external locus of control, suggesting that belief in divine control may diminish personal agency. Conversely, another perspective associates GLC with an internal locus, arguing that faith can bolster self-efficacy and resilience. This article proposes that GLC acts as a moderator in the relationship between loneliness, engagement, and academic achievement, introducing a boundary condition to these relationships. While loneliness, as a negative personal resource, is expected to negatively affect engagement and achievement, GLC may moderate the strength of these effects. GLC can be viewed as a form of positive religious coping, potentially mitigating the negative impacts of stressful situations like loneliness. Therefore, we hypothesize:
H5: GLC moderates the relationship between loneliness and student engagement.
H6: GLC moderates the relationship between loneliness and academic achievement.
Research Methodology and Findings
This study employed a mixed-methods approach, utilizing surveys collected from 324 university students in Indonesia during a period of emergency remote teaching. Participants provided data on loneliness, learning engagement, GLC, and academic achievement. Statistical analysis, including moderated-mediated regression analysis, was conducted to test the proposed hypotheses.
The findings confirmed that loneliness is negatively associated with both student engagement and academic achievement, supporting hypotheses H1 and H2. Furthermore, student engagement was found to positively predict academic achievement, supporting H3, and to mediate the relationship between loneliness and achievement, supporting H4.
Crucially, the study revealed the moderating role of GLC. GLC moderated the relationship between loneliness and learning engagement, as well as loneliness and academic achievement, supporting H5 and H6. Specifically, higher GLC appeared to buffer the negative impact of loneliness on student engagement, suggesting that students with a stronger belief in God’s control may be more resilient to the disengaging effects of loneliness in online learning. However, in contrast, higher GLC seemed to amplify the negative effect of loneliness on academic achievement, suggesting a more complex interplay between GLC, loneliness, and academic outcomes.
Discussion and Implications for Online Learning
This research underscores the significant challenge of student loneliness in online learning environments, a challenge that has been amplified by the shift to remote education. The findings highlight the negative impact of loneliness on student engagement and academic success, reinforcing the need for proactive strategies to address this issue.
Theoretical Contributions
This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of loneliness in online learning in several key ways. Firstly, it provides empirical evidence for the mediating role of student engagement in the relationship between loneliness and academic achievement, offering a more nuanced understanding of this dynamic. Secondly, it illuminates the complex and dual nature of GLC as a moderator. GLC appears to act as a buffer against the negative effects of loneliness on student engagement, potentially by providing a sense of external support or coping mechanism. However, GLC also seems to exacerbate the negative impact of loneliness on academic achievement, suggesting that while it may help students remain engaged, it may not fully translate to improved academic outcomes in the face of loneliness. These findings expand the theoretical understanding of both loneliness and GLC within the context of online education.
Practical Implications and Strategies
The findings of this study have significant practical implications for educators and institutions seeking to enhance online learning experiences and mitigate student loneliness. Educational institutions should prioritize initiatives that foster social connection and combat isolation in online environments. This includes:
- Proactive Identification of Loneliness: Institutions should implement mechanisms to identify students experiencing loneliness, through surveys, check-ins, or by training instructors to recognize signs of isolation.
- Building Online Communities: Creating opportunities for student interaction and community building is crucial. This can include facilitated online study groups, virtual social events, and online forums for informal interaction.
- Instructor Training and Awareness: Training online instructors to be aware of the signs of student loneliness and to employ strategies that promote engagement and connection is essential. This includes encouraging active participation, providing regular feedback, and fostering a supportive online classroom climate.
- Leveraging GLC as a Potential Resource: In cultures where faith and religious beliefs are prominent, acknowledging and potentially leveraging GLC as a coping mechanism could be explored, while being mindful of the complex and potentially double-edged nature of its effects on academic achievement.
As online learning continues to be an integral part of education, addressing student loneliness is not merely an ancillary concern but a core requirement for creating effective and supportive learning environments. By understanding the dynamics of loneliness, engagement, and individual beliefs, and by implementing proactive strategies, educators can strive to create online learning experiences that are not only academically rigorous but also socially and emotionally enriching.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study, while providing valuable insights, has limitations. The sample was drawn from Indonesian universities during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts and non-pandemic situations. Future research should explore these relationships in diverse cultural settings and under normal learning conditions. Further investigation into the specific mechanisms through which GLC moderates the effects of loneliness is also warranted, particularly to understand the divergent moderating effects observed on engagement versus achievement. Longitudinal studies and qualitative research could provide deeper insights into the evolving experiences of loneliness in online learning and the long-term impact of GLC. Finally, exploring a broader range of potential moderators and mediators in the relationship between loneliness and online learning outcomes would further enrich this field of study.
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