The Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction offers invaluable insights into conservation efforts, ecosystem restoration, and the importance of genetic diversity, as exemplified by the experiences at LEARNS.EDU.VN. Successful wildlife reintroduction hinges on carefully planned interventions and continuous monitoring to ensure long-term ecological health, and this case study provides critical lessons. These lessons learned highlight the intricate balance between preserving natural autonomy and actively managing wildlife populations.
1. Understanding the Cumberland Island Bobcat Reintroduction Context
In 1988, a project commenced to reintroduce bobcats to Cumberland Island, Georgia, after their local extinction due to trapping and disease in the 19th century. This initiative sought to restore ecological balance by controlling the white-tailed deer population, which was overgrazing the island’s forests. The reintroduction, spearheaded by Duane Diefenbach and colleagues, involved releasing 32 bobcats over two years. This effort aimed to catalyze a trophic cascade, revitalizing the island’s forests, and mirrors similar ecological restoration efforts observed in larger ecosystems such as Yellowstone National Park with its wolf reintroduction.
1.1. Historical Background of Bobcats on Cumberland Island
Historically, bobcats were native to Cumberland Island, part of the island’s natural ecological makeup. These animals likely migrated across the narrow channel from the mainland. However, due to intensive trapping in the 19th century and the spread of diseases, the bobcat population dramatically declined, leading to their disappearance from the island by 1907. Their absence disrupted the island’s ecosystem, leading to an overpopulation of deer and subsequent damage to the island’s vegetation.
1.2. Initial Objectives of the Reintroduction Program
The primary goal of the bobcat reintroduction program was to control the white-tailed deer population, which had grown unchecked in the absence of natural predators. Overgrazing by deer was harming the oak forests and other vegetation on the island. Bobcats, known for their ability to take down larger prey, were expected to restore balance to the ecosystem. However, the initial messaging of deer control faced local opposition.
1.3. Shift in Focus: Ecological Integrity
Due to pushback from local hunters, the National Park Service and its collaborators changed their communication strategy. They shifted the emphasis from deer control to the broader goal of restoring the ecological integrity of the island. This new approach highlighted the inherent value of returning a native species to its historic habitat, which resonated better with the local community and stakeholders.
2. The Reintroduction Process: A Step-by-Step Approach
The reintroduction process was meticulous, involving capturing bobcats from the mainland, ensuring their health, and carefully monitoring their adaptation to their new environment. This detailed approach provides a model for other reintroduction programs, emphasizing the importance of preparation and continuous assessment.
2.1. Capturing and Preparing Bobcats for Release
Duane Diefenbach was responsible for capturing bobcats on the mainland using foothold traps and cages. The captured animals were held in captivity for up to a month to ensure they were healthy and free from diseases. During this period, they were fitted with radio collars to allow for tracking and monitoring post-release.
2.2. The Release and Initial Monitoring Phase
The initial release involved 14 bobcats in 1988, followed by 18 more in 1989. Each animal’s movement was closely tracked using radio telemetry. This monitoring phase was crucial for understanding how the bobcats adapted to their new environment, their survival rates, and their impact on the island’s ecosystem.
2.3. Assessing the Health and Diet of the Introduced Bobcats
Regular recapturing of the bobcats allowed researchers to assess their health and physical condition. Additionally, scat samples were collected and analyzed to study the bobcats’ diet. This analysis revealed that the bobcats were successfully preying on rabbits, rats, feral pigs, and deer, indicating their adaptation to the island’s food sources.
3. Ecological Impact: The Trophic Cascade Effect
The reintroduction of bobcats had a significant and positive impact on Cumberland Island’s ecosystem. The trophic cascade effect, triggered by the bobcats, led to a decline in the deer population and the regeneration of oak forests, demonstrating the critical role of apex predators in maintaining ecological health.
3.1. Reduction in Deer Population
One of the most noticeable effects of the bobcat reintroduction was a significant reduction in the deer population. Bobcats proved to be effective predators, preying on deer at a higher rate than observed in other Southeast regions. This reduction in deer numbers had cascading effects throughout the ecosystem.
3.2. Regeneration of Oak Forests
With fewer deer overgrazing the vegetation, oak seedlings began to thrive. The regeneration of oak forests was a key indicator of the success of the trophic cascade. The return of these forests provided habitat and food for other species, further enhancing the island’s biodiversity.
3.3. Comparison with Yellowstone’s Wolf Reintroduction
The Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction is often compared to the more famous wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park. Both projects demonstrated the power of apex predators to reshape ecosystems. While Yellowstone’s wolves had a broader impact across a larger geographic area, the Cumberland bobcats showed that even smaller predators could initiate significant ecological changes.
4. Genetic Diversity: The Long-Term Challenge
Despite the initial success, the long-term survival of the Cumberland Island bobcat population faces challenges related to genetic diversity. Isolation has led to inbreeding, increasing the risk of extinction. This highlights the importance of genetic management in conservation efforts.
4.1. Evidence of Inbreeding
A 2021 study by Diefenbach and Cassandra Miller-Butterworth compared DNA from modern-day bobcat scat with blood samples from the 1980s. The results showed a decrease in genetic diversity over time, indicating that some bobcats were mating with relatives. This inbreeding raises concerns about the long-term health and viability of the population.
4.2. Risk of Extinction
The study estimated that without intervention, the Cumberland Island bobcat population has a 20% chance of going extinct in the next two decades. This alarming statistic underscores the need for proactive conservation measures to maintain the genetic health of the population.
4.3. The Need for Genetic Rescue
To address the issue of inbreeding, researchers have proposed a genetic rescue plan. This plan involves introducing new bobcats from the mainland to increase genetic diversity. The introduction of just one new bobcat every four years could significantly reduce the risk of extinction.
5. Potential Intervention Strategies: Balancing Autonomy and Management
Possible interventions include introducing new bobcats to increase genetic diversity or trading existing bobcats for new ones to avoid overpopulation. These strategies require careful consideration to balance the autonomy of the ecosystem with the necessity of genetic rescue.
5.1. Introducing New Bobcats
One proposed solution is to introduce new bobcats from the mainland to the Cumberland Island population. This infusion of new genes would help to increase genetic diversity and reduce the risk of inbreeding. However, this approach must be carefully managed to avoid disrupting the existing social structure and ecological balance.
5.2. Trading Bobcats to Avoid Overcrowding
Another strategy is to trade existing bobcats for new ones from the mainland. This approach would ensure that the population’s genetic diversity is increased without causing overcrowding or increasing competition for resources. Miller-Butterworth suggests that this method could have a more positive impact on the population’s long-term survival.
5.3. Ethical Considerations and Ecosystem Autonomy
Any intervention strategy must consider the ethical implications of manipulating a natural ecosystem. Some argue that the island should be left to its own devices, even if that means the eventual extinction of the bobcat population. Others believe that humans have a responsibility to intervene to correct past mistakes and preserve biodiversity. Balancing these competing values is a key challenge in conservation management.
6. Lessons Learned: Applying the Cumberland Island Experience
The Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction offers several key lessons applicable to other conservation efforts. These include the importance of continuous monitoring, the need for adaptive management strategies, and the recognition of genetic diversity as a critical factor for long-term survival.
6.1. The Importance of Continuous Monitoring
The Cumberland Island project highlights the importance of continuous monitoring in conservation efforts. Regular assessments of the bobcat population’s health, diet, and genetic diversity are essential for understanding the long-term impacts of the reintroduction and for making informed management decisions.
6.2. Adaptive Management Strategies
The shifting focus of the reintroduction program, from deer control to ecological integrity, demonstrates the need for adaptive management strategies. Conservation projects must be flexible and responsive to new information and changing circumstances. This adaptability ensures that the project remains effective and aligned with its overall goals.
6.3. Genetic Diversity as a Key Factor for Survival
The genetic challenges faced by the Cumberland Island bobcats underscore the importance of genetic diversity for the long-term survival of isolated populations. Conservation efforts must prioritize maintaining or restoring genetic diversity to ensure the resilience of these populations to environmental changes and diseases.
7. Global Implications: Relevance to Other Reintroduction Programs
The lessons from Cumberland Island have broad implications for reintroduction programs worldwide. As isolated feline populations and other species face increasing threats, reintroductions may become a more critical conservation tool. The Cumberland Island experience provides a valuable case study for guiding these efforts.
7.1. Reintroductions as a Conservation Tool
Reintroductions can be a powerful tool for restoring ecosystems and preserving biodiversity. The Cumberland Island bobcats demonstrate that reintroductions can succeed, but they also highlight the need for careful planning, continuous monitoring, and adaptive management.
7.2. The Need for Proactive Wildlife Management
The Cumberland Island project illustrates that wildlife managers may need to take a proactive approach to conservation, even after a successful reintroduction. This may involve ongoing interventions, such as genetic rescue, to ensure the long-term health and viability of the population.
7.3. Applying Lessons to Feline Conservation Worldwide
The challenges faced by the Cumberland Island bobcats are similar to those faced by other isolated feline populations around the world. The lessons learned from this project can inform conservation efforts for species such as the Iberian lynx, the Florida panther, and other endangered cats.
8. Educational Opportunities: Engaging the Public and Future Conservationists
The Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction offers significant educational opportunities. By engaging the public and training future conservationists, we can build support for conservation efforts and ensure the long-term protection of biodiversity.
8.1. Public Engagement and Awareness
Engaging the public through educational programs, guided tours, and online resources can raise awareness about the importance of conservation and the challenges faced by isolated populations. By fostering a sense of stewardship, we can encourage greater support for conservation efforts.
8.2. Training Future Conservationists
The Cumberland Island project provides valuable training opportunities for students and young professionals interested in conservation biology. By participating in research, monitoring, and management activities, these individuals can gain the skills and experience needed to become effective conservation leaders.
8.3. Leveraging Technology for Education
Utilizing technology, such as interactive maps, virtual tours, and online learning modules, can enhance the educational impact of the Cumberland Island story. These tools can reach a wider audience and provide a more engaging and informative learning experience. For instance, LEARNS.EDU.VN offers courses in environmental science and conservation, providing a platform for learners to delve deeper into such topics.
9. Scientific Research: Contributing to Conservation Knowledge
The Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction has contributed significantly to scientific knowledge about trophic cascades, genetic diversity, and the management of isolated populations. Continued research is essential for refining conservation strategies and informing future reintroduction efforts.
9.1. Understanding Trophic Cascades
The Cumberland Island project provided one of the early examples of a trophic cascade initiated by the reintroduction of an apex predator. Further research can help us better understand the complex interactions within ecosystems and the role of predators in maintaining ecological balance.
9.2. Genetic Studies and Conservation Management
Genetic studies of the Cumberland Island bobcats have provided valuable insights into the impacts of inbreeding and the effectiveness of genetic rescue strategies. Continued research in this area can inform conservation management decisions for other isolated populations.
9.3. Informing Future Reintroduction Efforts
The lessons learned from the Cumberland Island project can guide future reintroduction efforts for a wide range of species. By studying the successes and challenges of this project, we can develop more effective strategies for restoring ecosystems and preserving biodiversity.
10. Policy and Management: Ensuring Long-Term Conservation
Effective policy and management are essential for ensuring the long-term conservation of the Cumberland Island bobcat population and other reintroduced species. This includes developing clear conservation goals, implementing adaptive management strategies, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders.
10.1. Setting Clear Conservation Goals
Clear and measurable conservation goals are essential for guiding management decisions and evaluating the success of conservation efforts. These goals should be based on sound scientific data and aligned with broader conservation objectives.
10.2. Adaptive Management Strategies
Adaptive management strategies allow for flexibility and responsiveness to new information and changing circumstances. This approach involves continuously monitoring the population, evaluating the effectiveness of management actions, and adjusting strategies as needed.
10.3. Collaboration Among Stakeholders
Effective conservation requires collaboration among a wide range of stakeholders, including government agencies, scientists, local communities, and conservation organizations. By working together, these stakeholders can develop and implement conservation strategies that are both effective and sustainable.
11. The Role of LEARNS.EDU.VN in Promoting Conservation Education
LEARNS.EDU.VN plays a crucial role in providing educational resources and courses related to conservation, ecology, and wildlife management. Through its online platform, LEARNS.EDU.VN offers a variety of learning opportunities for students, professionals, and anyone interested in environmental conservation.
11.1. Online Courses in Environmental Science
LEARNS.EDU.VN offers comprehensive online courses in environmental science that cover topics such as ecosystem dynamics, biodiversity conservation, and wildlife management. These courses provide a strong foundation for understanding the scientific principles underlying conservation efforts.
11.2. Case Studies and Real-World Examples
The LEARNS.EDU.VN platform features case studies and real-world examples of conservation projects, including the Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction. These examples illustrate the challenges and successes of conservation efforts and provide valuable insights for learners.
11.3. Connecting Learners with Experts
LEARNS.EDU.VN connects learners with experts in the field of conservation through webinars, online forums, and mentorship programs. This provides opportunities for learners to ask questions, share ideas, and gain valuable advice from experienced professionals.
12. Future Directions: Sustaining the Legacy of the Cumberland Island Bobcats
Sustaining the legacy of the Cumberland Island bobcats requires continued commitment to conservation, research, and education. By implementing effective management strategies, engaging the public, and supporting future conservationists, we can ensure that these iconic animals continue to thrive on Cumberland Island.
12.1. Long-Term Monitoring and Management
Long-term monitoring and management of the Cumberland Island bobcat population are essential for ensuring its continued survival. This includes regular assessments of the population’s health, genetic diversity, and ecological impacts.
12.2. Public Engagement and Support
Continued public engagement and support are crucial for the success of conservation efforts. By raising awareness about the importance of conservation and fostering a sense of stewardship, we can encourage greater support for the protection of Cumberland Island’s natural resources.
12.3. Supporting Future Conservationists
Investing in the training and education of future conservationists is essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of conservation efforts. By providing opportunities for students and young professionals to gain experience in conservation research and management, we can build a strong and capable conservation workforce.
Winter 2022 – Isle of Cats Bobcat photo portrait
By understanding the ecological dynamics, genetic considerations, and management strategies involved in the Cumberland Island bobcat reintroduction, we can enhance our approach to conserving threatened species and restoring ecosystems globally. LEARNS.EDU.VN offers a wealth of knowledge and skills needed for those passionate about making a difference in wildlife conservation.
13. Analyzing the Economic Impact of Conservation Initiatives
Conservation initiatives, while primarily focused on ecological benefits, also have significant economic impacts. Understanding these impacts can help garner support for conservation efforts and ensure their long-term sustainability.
13.1. Ecotourism and Revenue Generation
The presence of a healthy bobcat population on Cumberland Island can attract ecotourists, generating revenue for local communities. Ecotourism activities, such as guided wildlife tours and nature photography workshops, can provide economic benefits while promoting conservation awareness.
13.2. Ecosystem Services and Economic Value
Ecosystem services, such as water purification, carbon sequestration, and pollination, provide significant economic value. The restoration of oak forests on Cumberland Island, thanks to the bobcat reintroduction, enhances these ecosystem services, contributing to the island’s economic well-being.
13.3. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Conservation Efforts
A thorough cost-benefit analysis of conservation efforts can help decision-makers understand the economic returns on investment. This analysis should consider both the direct costs of conservation activities and the indirect economic benefits, such as increased tourism revenue and enhanced ecosystem services.
14. Community Involvement and Social Dimensions of Conservation
Effective conservation requires the active involvement of local communities and consideration of the social dimensions of conservation. Engaging communities in conservation planning and implementation can foster a sense of ownership and ensure the long-term sustainability of conservation efforts.
14.1. Community-Based Conservation Programs
Community-based conservation programs empower local communities to manage and protect natural resources. These programs can provide economic incentives for conservation, such as payments for ecosystem services or support for sustainable livelihoods.
14.2. Addressing Conflicts Between Conservation and Development
Conflicts between conservation and development are common in many areas. Addressing these conflicts requires finding creative solutions that balance the needs of both conservation and economic development. This may involve implementing sustainable development practices, promoting ecotourism, or providing compensation for conservation efforts.
14.3. Social Equity and Conservation
Conservation efforts should be implemented in a way that promotes social equity. This means ensuring that the benefits of conservation are shared equitably among all members of the community and that conservation activities do not disproportionately burden marginalized groups.
15. Technological Advancements in Wildlife Monitoring
Advancements in technology have revolutionized wildlife monitoring, providing more accurate and efficient methods for tracking animal populations and assessing their health. Leveraging these technologies can significantly enhance conservation efforts.
15.1. GPS Tracking and Data Analysis
GPS tracking devices allow researchers to monitor the movements of individual animals with high precision. The data collected can be analyzed to understand habitat use, migration patterns, and social interactions. This information is invaluable for making informed management decisions.
15.2. Remote Sensing and Habitat Mapping
Remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imagery and aerial photography, can be used to map and monitor habitats over large areas. This allows researchers to assess habitat quality, identify threats, and track changes over time.
15.3. Camera Trapping and Wildlife Surveys
Camera trapping involves placing motion-activated cameras in the field to capture images of wildlife. This method is particularly useful for surveying elusive species and monitoring population trends. Camera traps can also provide valuable data on animal behavior and activity patterns.
16. The Crucial Role of Education in Fostering Conservation Awareness
Education is a cornerstone of fostering conservation awareness and promoting responsible environmental stewardship. Accessible and engaging educational programs can empower individuals to make informed decisions and take meaningful actions to protect wildlife and ecosystems.
16.1. Integrating Conservation into School Curricula
Integrating conservation concepts into school curricula can educate young people about the importance of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and sustainable practices. This early exposure can instill a lifelong commitment to environmental stewardship.
16.2. Public Awareness Campaigns and Outreach Programs
Public awareness campaigns and outreach programs can reach a broader audience and promote conservation messages through various channels, such as social media, community events, and educational workshops.
16.3. Citizen Science Initiatives and Community Engagement
Citizen science initiatives engage the public in scientific research, providing opportunities for individuals to contribute to data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This involvement fosters a deeper understanding of conservation issues and promotes a sense of ownership and responsibility.
17. Addressing Climate Change Impacts on Wildlife Conservation
Climate change poses significant challenges to wildlife conservation, altering habitats, disrupting ecological processes, and increasing the risk of species extinctions. Addressing these impacts requires proactive measures to mitigate climate change and adapt conservation strategies.
17.1. Habitat Restoration and Climate Resilience
Habitat restoration can enhance the resilience of ecosystems to climate change impacts, providing refuges for wildlife and buffering against extreme weather events. Restoration efforts should focus on creating diverse and connected habitats that can support a wide range of species.
17.2. Species Translocation and Assisted Migration
In some cases, species translocation or assisted migration may be necessary to move species to more suitable habitats as climate change alters their current ranges. This approach should be carefully considered and implemented, taking into account the potential ecological impacts.
17.3. Reducing Carbon Footprint and Promoting Sustainability
Reducing our carbon footprint and promoting sustainable practices can help mitigate climate change and protect wildlife. This involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving energy, and adopting sustainable consumption patterns.
18. Future Challenges and Opportunities in Bobcat Conservation
Bobcat conservation faces numerous challenges, including habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and genetic isolation. However, there are also significant opportunities to enhance conservation efforts and ensure the long-term survival of these adaptable felines.
18.1. Habitat Conservation and Connectivity
Protecting and connecting bobcat habitats is essential for maintaining healthy populations. This involves establishing protected areas, implementing habitat management practices, and creating wildlife corridors that allow bobcats to move between fragmented habitats.
18.2. Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflict
Human-wildlife conflict can be minimized through proactive measures, such as educating the public about bobcat behavior, implementing non-lethal deterrents, and providing compensation for livestock losses.
18.3. Genetic Management and Population Augmentation
Genetic management, including population augmentation and translocation, can help maintain genetic diversity and reduce the risk of inbreeding in isolated bobcat populations. These strategies should be carefully planned and implemented, taking into account the ecological and genetic context of each population.
19. The Application of AI in Conservation Planning
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being used in conservation planning to analyze large datasets, predict ecological patterns, and optimize management strategies. AI tools can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of conservation efforts.
19.1. Predictive Modeling for Habitat Suitability
AI algorithms can be used to develop predictive models that assess habitat suitability for bobcats and other wildlife species. These models can integrate data on habitat characteristics, climate variables, and species occurrences to identify areas that are most likely to support healthy populations.
19.2. Monitoring Wildlife Populations Through Image Recognition
AI-powered image recognition technology can automatically identify and count individual animals in camera trap images, reducing the time and effort required for wildlife surveys. This technology can also be used to track animal movements and monitor population trends.
19.3. Optimizing Conservation Resource Allocation
AI algorithms can optimize the allocation of conservation resources by identifying the most cost-effective strategies for achieving conservation goals. This can help maximize the impact of limited conservation funding and ensure that resources are used efficiently.
20. Ensuring Sustainable Funding Mechanisms for Long-Term Conservation
Long-term conservation requires sustainable funding mechanisms that can support ongoing monitoring, management, and research efforts. Diversifying funding sources and engaging stakeholders in financial planning are essential for ensuring the long-term viability of conservation programs.
20.1. Diversifying Funding Sources
Relying on a single funding source can make conservation programs vulnerable to budget cuts and economic downturns. Diversifying funding sources, including government grants, private donations, and corporate sponsorships, can provide a more stable and sustainable financial base.
20.2. Engaging Stakeholders in Financial Planning
Engaging stakeholders, such as local communities, businesses, and conservation organizations, in financial planning can foster a sense of ownership and ensure that funding decisions are aligned with community needs and conservation goals.
20.3. Establishing Endowment Funds for Conservation
Establishing endowment funds for conservation can provide a long-term source of funding for ongoing management, research, and education efforts. Endowment funds can generate a stable income stream that supports conservation activities in perpetuity.
Bobcat standing in a forest clearing, alert and looking towards the camera, embodying wildlife conservation
The journey of the Cumberland Island bobcats provides invaluable lessons for wildlife management. It underscores the necessity of proactive measures, adaptive management, and the integration of technology, community, and consistent funding. By embracing these lessons and continuing education through resources like LEARNS.EDU.VN, we can enhance our capacity to conserve threatened species and ecosystems worldwide. For more in-depth insights and courses, visit LEARNS.EDU.VN today! Reach out to us at 123 Education Way, Learnville, CA 90210, United States, Whatsapp: +1 555-555-1212.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About Bobcat Reintroduction
Q1: Why were bobcats reintroduced to Cumberland Island?
A1: Bobcats were reintroduced to control the overpopulation of white-tailed deer, which were overgrazing the island’s forests, and to restore ecological balance.
Q2: What is a trophic cascade, and how did bobcats trigger it on Cumberland Island?
A2: A trophic cascade is an ecological chain reaction. Bobcats, as apex predators, reduced the deer population, allowing oak seedlings to thrive and regenerate the forests.
Q3: How was the genetic diversity of the bobcat population assessed?
A3: Researchers compared DNA from modern bobcat scat with blood samples from the 1980s to assess changes in genetic diversity over time.
Q4: What is genetic rescue, and why is it needed for the Cumberland Island bobcats?
A4: Genetic rescue involves introducing new individuals to increase genetic diversity and reduce inbreeding. It’s needed to prevent the Cumberland Island bobcats from potential extinction due to inbreeding.
Q5: What are the ethical considerations of intervening in an ecosystem like Cumberland Island?
A5: Ethical considerations involve balancing the autonomy of the ecosystem with the responsibility to correct past mistakes and preserve biodiversity.
Q6: How can the public support bobcat conservation efforts?
A6: The public can support conservation efforts by participating in educational programs, supporting conservation organizations, and promoting responsible environmental stewardship.
Q7: What role does technology play in wildlife monitoring?
A7: Technology such as GPS tracking, remote sensing, and camera trapping allows for more accurate and efficient monitoring of animal populations and their habitats.
Q8: How does climate change impact bobcat conservation?
A8: Climate change alters habitats, disrupts ecological processes, and increases the risk of species extinctions, necessitating proactive measures and adaptive conservation strategies.
Q9: What is LEARNS.EDU.VN, and how does it contribute to conservation education?
A9: learns.edu.vn is an online education platform offering courses and resources related to conservation, ecology, and wildlife management, fostering a deeper understanding of environmental issues.
Q10: What can individuals do to promote sustainable practices and reduce their carbon footprint?
A10: Individuals can reduce their carbon footprint by conserving energy, adopting sustainable consumption patterns, and supporting policies that promote environmental protection.
